Art Embodied: Late Renaissance and Mannerism

As the Renaissance blossomed into a full-fledged artistic and cultural movement in 1400s, the study of anatomy boomed and artistic representations of the human figure were forever changed. Anatomical study was secularized, empirical observation of the body emerged as the forerunner for understanding the body, creationist doctrine weakened, and figurative art, inspired by Classicism and the notion of the human form as the incarnation of perfection, illustrated the day.

During the Renaissance we see the rise of three interrelated phenomenon that reinforced and complemented one another to make this an extraordinary for ‘art embodied.’ The simultaneous rise of dissection, anatomical illustration and accurate human figures in artwork is a bit of a chicken and egg situation and is difficult to parse out in a linear fashion. But during the Renaissance we witness the following trends: a revival of cultural interest in the physical human form, the emergence of the idealized and anatomically accurate human form as the subject of the majority of artwork, a massive swell in dissection and the empirical study of cadavers, and the birth of the anatomical illustration industry.

It is important to note that art and the study of anatomy were not viewed as disparate endeavors at this time, but rather integrated fields. To accurately depict the human figure, artists required anatomical knowledge. For anatomists to publish their books, they needed artists to illustrate them. But the symbiotic relationship between anatomists and artists extended beyond the industry of anatomical texts and into fine art. Artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo and the lesser-known Pontormo and Alessandro Allori also represent this marriage between the disciplines of art and anatomy;  their realistic depictions of human forms are the result of significant anatomical understanding due to extensive study of both illustrated texts and in some cases dissection.

During the Renaissance, humanism ruled the day, so it is not surprising that the human form emerged as the top rung on the artistic subject matter hierarchy. Renaissance artists had three ways of learning the architecture of the human figure: observing classical sculpture, sketching from live models, and performing anatomical dissection. Since cadavers were generally tough to come by and preservation methods were not yet developed, and observation of classical statue and live models gave only a superficial view of the human form, the illustrated anatomical text was born. Much of my reading this week has focused on the huge rise in dissection and boom in anatomical knowledge during this time, as well as the history of anatomical illustration. These next few paragraphs give a brief overview of this development in anatomical illustration during the Renaissance.

In the 1400s Leonardo Da Vinci dissected around thirty cadavers and made countless anatomical sketches for an atlas of the human body he planned to publish. The project never reached fruition and the sketches failed to reach the public, but Leonardo introduced anatomical illustrating techniques such as rotation of the specimen, transparency of different layers, and the transverse section (the cross-section), that would have lasting effects on future anatomical drawing.

In 1543 Andrea Vesalius published De Humani Corporis Fabric, ‘The Fabric of the Human Body’ — a magnificent anatomical text and accompanying engraved images of epic proportion. The work was not intended for a solely artistic audience but was also intended for the medical and popular realms. Compared to the stale taste and mechanical affect of anatomical drawings in textbooks today, the iconography of these images is astounding. Flayed male nudes are shown nailed to crosses, infant skeletons are shown dragging toys, and lounging women are depicted holding open the sides of their abdomen to reveal their internal organs.

To understand the bizarre iconography that pervades these images (such as the cadaver above who holds his own skin) we should consider the context in which these anatomical texts were made. During this time, anatomical drawings were based on cadavers that had been procured from the state. The bodies were those of the condemned and disenfranchised. Dissection was considered the ultimate post-mortem punishment, a true physical violation reserved for only capital-offense criminals. While common consensus was that these criminals deserved their post-mortem fate, anatomical artists such as Vesalius were worried that physical revulsion to these highly graphic anatomical images would deter readers from purchasing anatomical books. To counteract this reaction and elicit a more positive empathetic response from readers, Vesalius and other Renaissance-era anatomists employed a fascinating strategy —they represented the cadaver as alive. In these images the cadaver figure is often placed in a particular context, such as a landscape, and is depicted as reacting to it’s predicament with self pity, despair or mirth. This type of imagery was probably inspired by Medieval themes such as the 'Living Dead' and Dark Ages illustration depicting scenes such as the ‘Dance of Death.'

Renaissance anatomical illustrators furthered this contextual strategy by employing classical and Christian iconography in their anatomical images. As religion became more humanistic during the Renaissance, Christian iconography became acceptable iconographic domain. Classical iconography was similarly adopted by anatomical illustrators as Europeans became enamored with the idealization of Classical culture. The result? Anatomical images that were emotionally charged, context-heavy and oozing in moral implications.

This cultural emphasis on the human body, as well as the spring of anatomical knowledge born during the Renaissance, profoundly impacted representations of the human figure in art creating during this time. Based on my observations in the Louvre’s Renaissance and Mannerism collections this week, human figures gained an unprecedented anatomical realism during the Renaissance.

Because art was meant to celebrate the perfection that was the human form, anatomy emerged as a fundamental element of the artist’s education.  Renaissance art reflects this newfound commitment to the perfect human form. Many Renaissance artists were fascinated with human proportion, and much energy was spent to develop a system of measurements correlating to the composition of the accurate human body. In addition to accurate proportions, Renaissance artists were engaged with the mechanics of bodily movement. Many works of the era illustrate individuals or groups of figures in action.

The Renaissance-figure of a woman and child below is illustrative of the ways in which Renaissance artists sought perfection of the human form. Though realism was sought in proportion and anatomy, sometimes depictions of the human form became so idealized they lost touch with reality. In this case, the female figure is evoquative of the idealized Godess figures from Classical art.

The greatest surge in anatomical understanding during the Renaissance was in regards to bone structure and musculature, along with superficial anatomy. This phenomena is reflected in human figures created during the Renaissance, figures often emphasized musculature and dramatic postures. This massive tapestry hanging in the Louvre, boasting a mass of figures in myriad poses, is typical of the era. 

The image below is a close up of the bottom right corner of the tapestry above. The musculature of the figures is emphasized, but the idealized figures are clearly the result of at least superficial anatomical study on the part of the artist.

The gold figurine below shows a young male figure hanging from a tree. The complicated pose may be an attempt on the part of the artist to flaunt his anatomical prowess. The figure is typical of the late Renaissance era, known as Mannerism — an artistic movement that took place from 1520-1620 in Europe. Mannerists artists were fascinated with the perfection of Florentine and Roman Art. In many ways their work is a revisiting of extension of early Renaissance works, yet Mannerists took idealism to its extreme and often created elongated figures with unrealistic spatial effects. Small precious-metal figures such as the one below epitomize Mannerist art — art of extraordinary luxury meant to illustrate the refinement of the period and virtuosity of craftsmen. Usually completed in tapestry, ceramics, or metalwork, Mannerist art resided in powerful European courts such as Fontainebleau or the palaces in Madrid, Florence and Prague.

The Renaissance marks the time when the study of anatomy was truly born as a scientific discipline. Art's role was in line with the humanistic cultural values of the day — representations of the human figure were meant to be accurate and celebratory of the perfection of the physical body. Dissection emerged as an accepted practice, anatomical illustration disseminated knowledge, and artistic representations of the human form became increasingly accurate and nuanced to anatomical detail.

Below is a small Mannerist-era statuette of a flayed figure, along with a page from my sketchbook. Tun in next week as I continue my studies on anatomy and art of the Baroque era!