During the time of the Greeks anatomy emerged as a scientific field of study. Herophilus, a Greek anatomist born in 335 BC spearheaded anatomy studies during his time, and is known as the 'Father of Anatomy'. A medical professional himself, Herophilus believed a solid understanding of the human body was of prime importance to Greek society, as illustrated by the quote below.
"Wisdom is indemonstrable, art uncertain, strength powerless, wealth useless and speech impotent if health be absent" —Herophilus
Unfortunately, Herophilus' record is not totally clean, as he has been accused of vivisection (live dissection) of condemned criminals passed on to him by the rulers of Alexandria. Despite this semi-sketchy resume, Herophilus is considered the first to systematically dissect the human body, and the first to perform an autopsy with the goal of learning about disease. Human dissection was regarded as desecration of the human body at the time, so Herophilus' work was considered taboo. In fact, after Herophilus, systematic human dissection largely dissapeared until the 1500s, and did not become a requirement for surgeons-in-training until the 17th century.
Based on dissection, Herophilus laid the foundation for much of our modern understanding of anatomy. His findings included the differentation fo arteries and veins based on the thickness of the vessels and the classification of nerves, blood vessels and tendons. Rejecting the Egyptian theory that the heart was the source of thoughts, and Aristotle's notion that the brain was a 'cooling chamber,' Herophilus identified the brain as the 'seat of intellect'. His work led to the recognition of the existence of nerve impulses, classification of two types of nerves and association of nerve damage with paralysis. To top off his huge contributions to the understanding of the nervous system at the time, Herophilus named facial nerves, distinguished the different ventricles of the brain, and identified the cerebellum and cerebrum as separate entities.
Herophilus' work extended to the digestive and reproductive systems. He identified the uterus, uterine tubes and ovaries in women, the prostrate gland in men, and realized that the testes produced sperm. He was the first to accurately describe the liver, he wrote about the salivary glands, and coined the term 'duodenum' to mean the first portion of the small intestine. Herophilus also parsed out the parts of the eye, uniquely identifying the iris, cornea and retina for the first time in history.
Greek anatomical knowledge was more detailed and classified than the Egyptian's understanding. This increased depth of anatomical insight is illustrated in the way the human figure is depicted in the art of the two cultures. Based on my observations of the Louvre's Greek and Roman collections this week, I have identified several major changes in the way the Greeks represented the human figure in contrast to earlier art: increased realism, increased interest in movement, and greater depiction of depth.
In contrast to the art of earlier cultures, Greek depictions of the human form demonstrate increased realism and accuracy. The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt describes pre-Greek art as a "diagram of a thing man knew it to be, not as it appears to the eye under transitory circumstances." Artists of earlier cultures, such as the Ancient Egyptians, indeed observed balance and proportion, but artists of antiquity embraced realism to a new degree. Greek and Roman artists aspired to accuracy and ascribed value to the art's proximity to reality.
The shift from highly stylized figures to increasingly realistic depictions of the human figure occurred in Ancient Greece around 400 to 300 BC. The photograph below features The Bull of Crete found in the Temple of Zeus. The metope, or panel, depicts Hercules fighting the bull of Crete. This piece is illustrative of the transition from stylized to more realistic figures, because the figure of Hercules is loyal to both reality and the idealism of the artist. Some elements of the figure, such as the protruding rib cage and exaggerated muscles, are stylized. The artist took liberty in overemphasizing certain parts of the figure, yet other details, such as the navel, were considered unimportant are are over-simplified in the work. While elements of exaggeration are indeed present, the figure as a whole is quite realistic, and rests on the door step of the true classical period.
In contrast to the static forms of the Egyptians, Greek artists sought to depict the human figure as a dynamic form. This commitment to accurately representing movement is evident in Greek sculptures at the Louvre such as the statue shown below, the Gladiator Borghese. Created in 100 BC from a monolithic piece of marble, this statue illustrates the Greeks' increased expressiveness in depicting the human form. The work has elements of exaggeration, such as the emphasized torso muscles, but the artist's underlying goal of representing this male body as it appears to the eye is evident.
In addition to representing movement of the human body more accurately, classical artists also began to experiment with different types of movement. For example, in the Roman stuate Hermaphrodite Endormi, the soft and realistic figure is shown contorted in sleep, wracked by a troublesome dream.
Similarly, in the Torment of Marsyas, a Greek sculpture from the Hellenistic period recreated by Roman artists around 100 AD, the figure hangs with it's sides protruding and muscles stretched — a bizarre position the likes of which are not observed in pre-antiquity art.
Finally, in contrast to the planar nature of the Ancient Egyptian figures I studied last week, it seems Greek artists took greater pains to suggest depth in their work. During the classical era, muscles emerged as a prominent element in artistic representations of the human figure. Based on the complexity of the surface of sculptures such as the one below, many artists of antiquity sought to faithfully depict the myriad contours of the human body.
In summary, human dissection led to the emergence of anatomy as a field of study during the classical era. Increased understanding of the structure of the human body is illustrated by the human figures present in Greek and Roman art. In contrast to human bodies in art from previous eras, these figures are increasingly realistic, more dynamic, and present a stronger illusion of depth.
As this post marks the end of week two of my independent study project, it is now time for me to create an anatomical drawing based on the last two weeks of study.
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